I knew better... next morning engine made the loudest awful clatter rattle I’ve ever heard from a motor, with a massive plume of black and blue smoke-
So, did I damage the motor? Aren’t there sensors to detect this and make appropriate adjustments?
Should I add a octane booster on top of the premium fuel I filled with?

Your knock sensor should detect the pinging from autoignition of the lower octane fuel andadjust performance accordingly.
However, the clatter at startup is something I also experienced once. That car used nothing but premium. This happened some time in the winter after the car had sat untouched for over a month.

I think it was coincidence in your case, unless it did it again?

Why a full tank of regular though? If you run out of gas, just a few gallons should get you to safety.